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Steel is an iron-carbon alloy with a maximum carbon content of 2% by mass. The steels achieve their intended physical and mechanical properties through various hardening, annealing and tempering processes. It is also possible to harden the edge zone by surface hardening, case hardening or nitriding. Well-known steel grades are structural steels, free-machining steels, case-hardening steels, nitriding steels, tempering steels, tool steels and stainless steels.

Nickel coatings are produced either by electroplating in accordance with DIN EN ISO 4526 or by chemical processes in accordance with DIN EN ISO 4527. In the case of electroplating, there is a risk of hydrogen embrittlement in fasteners with a hardness exceeding 390 HV. This necessitates specific measures (such as annealing), although these do not provide a 100 per cent guarantee against embrittlement.